Trace Elements

In addition to major electrolytes, trace elements are critical for a variety of biochemical processes in the body. These elements, though required in minute amounts, play essential roles in enzyme function, hormone synthesis, immune response, and overall health

Trace Elements

• Definition: Trace elements are minerals required by living organisms in very small (trace) amounts to ensure normal growth, development, and physiological function
• Importance
  • Enzyme Cofactors: Many trace elements are essential components of enzymes, acting as cofactors that facilitate biochemical reactions
  • Hormone Synthesis: Some trace elements are required for the synthesis of hormones, which regulate various bodily functions
  • Immune Function: Trace elements play a role in immune cell development and function
  • Antioxidant Defense: Some trace elements are components of antioxidant enzymes, protecting cells from oxidative damage
• Categories
  • Essential Trace Elements: Required for normal physiological function
  • Non-Essential Trace Elements: No known biological function or are toxic at certain levels
• Factors Affecting Trace Element Levels
  • Dietary Intake
  • Absorption
  • Transport
  • Storage
  • Excretion

Iron (\(Fe\))

• Normal Range: 60-170 μg/dL (10.7-30.4 μmol/L)
• Functions:
  • Oxygen transport (hemoglobin and myoglobin)
  • Enzyme cofactor (cytochromes, peroxidases)
  • Immune function
• Deficiency: Iron deficiency anemia (fatigue, weakness)
• Excess: Hemochromatosis (tissue damage) ## Zinc (\(Zn\)) {-}
• Normal Range: 70-120 μg/dL (10.7-18.4 μmol/L)
• Functions:
  • Enzyme cofactor (DNA polymerase, carbonic anhydrase)
  • Immune function
  • Wound healing
  • Growth and development
• Deficiency: Impaired immune function, growth retardation, skin lesions, taste and smell abnormalities
• Excess: Copper deficiency, impaired immune function ## Copper (\(Cu\)) {-}
• Normal Range: 70-140 μg/dL (11.0-22.0 μmol/L)
• Functions:
  • Enzyme cofactor (ceruloplasmin, superoxide dismutase)
  • Iron metabolism
  • Antioxidant defense
• Deficiency: Anemia, neutropenia, neurological abnormalities
• Excess: Wilson’s disease (liver and neurological damage) ## Selenium (\(Se\)) {-}
• Normal Range: 50-120 μg/L (0.63-1.52 μmol/L)
• Functions:
  • Enzyme cofactor (glutathione peroxidase)
  • Antioxidant defense
  • Thyroid hormone metabolism
  • Immune function
• Deficiency: Keshan disease (cardiomyopathy), Kashin-Beck disease (osteoarthritis)
• Excess: Selenosis (hair loss, nail changes, neurological abnormalities) ## Iodine (\(I\)) {-}
• Normal Range: Varies depending on the method and population
• Functions:
  • Thyroid hormone synthesis (thyroxine, triiodothyronine)
• Deficiency: Hypothyroidism, goiter, developmental abnormalities
• Excess: Hyperthyroidism, thyroiditis ## Manganese (\(Mn\)) {-}
• Normal Range: 4-15 μg/L (0.07-0.27 μmol/L)
• Functions:
  • Enzyme cofactor (superoxide dismutase, pyruvate carboxylase)
  • Bone development
  • Carbohydrate and lipid metabolism
• Deficiency: Rare, may cause impaired growth and bone development
• Excess: Manganism (neurological abnormalities) ## Chromium (\(Cr\)) {-}
• Normal Range: 0.5-10 μg/L (0.01-0.19 μmol/L)
• Functions:
  • Enhances insulin action
  • Glucose metabolism
  • Lipid metabolism
• Deficiency: Impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance
• Excess: Rare, may cause kidney or liver damage ## Molybdenum (\(Mo\)) {-}
• Normal Range: 0.4-1.0 μg/L (0.004-0.01 μmol/L)
• Functions:
  • Enzyme cofactor (sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidase)
  • Sulfur amino acid metabolism
  • Purine metabolism
• Deficiency: Rare, may cause neurological abnormalities
• Excess: Rare, may cause gout-like symptoms ## Fluoride (\(F\)) {-}
• Normal Range: Varies depending on water fluoridation levels
• Functions:
  • Bone and tooth mineralization
• Deficiency: Increased risk of dental caries
• Excess: Fluorosis (dental and skeletal abnormalities)

Key Terms

• Trace Element: A mineral required by living organisms in very small amounts
• Essential Trace Element: A trace element required for normal physiological function
• Cofactor: A non-protein chemical compound that is bound to an enzyme and is required for its biological activity
• Enzyme: A substance produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction
• Hormone: A regulatory substance produced in an organism and transported in tissue fluids such as blood or sap to stimulate specific cells or tissues into action
• Antioxidant: A substance that inhibits oxidation, especially one used to counteract the deterioration of stored food products or remove potentially damaging oxidizing agents in a living organism
• Hemoglobin: A protein in red blood cells that binds and transports oxygen
• Myoglobin: A protein in muscle cells that stores oxygen
• Ceruloplasmin: A copper-containing protein in the blood that plays a role in iron metabolism
• Superoxide Dismutase (SOD): An enzyme that catalyzes the dismutation of superoxide into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide
• Glutathione Peroxidase: An enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of hydrogen peroxide and other organic hydroperoxides
• Thyroid Hormone: The hormones produced and released by the thyroid gland, including thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
• Neutropenia: A condition characterized by abnormally low levels of neutrophils in the blood
• Hypothyroidism: A deficiency of thyroid activity
• Hyperthyroidism: Excessive activity of the thyroid gland
• Keshan Disease: A congestive cardiomyopathy caused by a deficiency of selenium
• Kashin-Beck Disease: A chronic endemic osteoarthropathy caused by a deficiency of selenium
• Fluorosis: A condition caused by excessive fluoride intake, characterized by dental and skeletal abnormalities
• Manganism: Neurological abnormalities caused by excessive manganese exposure
• Enzyme: A substance produced by a living organism that acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction